What was the Amistad case of 1839?

what was the amistad case of 1839

In June 1839, fifty-three captured Africans were brought from West Africa to Cuba, where they were sold to two Spaniards. On June 28, they were chained belowdecks on a ship, the Amistad, to be taken to their destination. On the fourth night at sea, the Africans, led by a young man named Cinque, broke their … Read more

Where did slaves who used the Underground Railroad escape to during the 1800s?

where did slaves who used the underground railroad escape to during the 1800s

When possible, conductors met them at Cincinnati, Ohio, and Wilmington, Delaware, which were at the northern borders of the slave states. Those escaping to Canada went to the lake ports of Detroit, Michigan; Sandusky, Ohio; Erie, Pennsylvania; and Buffalo, New York, where they could sail north. Each safe place long the Underground Railroad was called … Read more

How did the Underground Railroad help slaves escape during the 1800s?

how did the underground railroad help slaves escape during the 1800s scaled

Most of the fugitives came from the states of the upper South, such as Maryland, Virginia, and Kentucky, because these states were closest to the North. They were usually young, single males. It was rare that whole families fled together, because it was very risky. The escapees usually sought out isolated stations or vigilance committee … Read more

Why did free blacks in Colonial America own slaves?

why did free blacks in colonial america own slaves

Some free blacks did own slaves. Others bought their own relatives to get them out of slavery. There were also a number of skilled free blacks, such as tailors, shoemakers, and carpenters, who bought slaves and made them apprentices. In 1850, 19 percent of the black tailors in Charleston, South Carolina, owned slaves. According to … Read more

Who else tried to help the slaves in Colonial America?

who else tried to help the slaves in colonial america

In 1833, the American Anti-Slavery Society was established in Philadelphia to advance the abolition of slavery in the United States. The first such society in America, it was made up of smaller local groups. The American Anti-Slavery Society was formed by Theodore Dwight Weld (1803-1895), Arthur Tappan (1786-1865), and Lewis Tappan (1788-1873), who were militant … Read more

What was the first African American Church in America and When was it established?

what was the first african american church in america and when was it established

The first known black church in America, the African Baptist or Bluestone Church, was established in 1758 on the William Byrd plantation in Mecklenberg, Virginia. The church was named after the nearby Bluestone River. Around 1774, the Silver Bluff Baptist Church in Silver Bluff, South Carolina, was founded by a slave preacher named George Liele. … Read more

What did abolitionists do to fight slavery during the American Colonial Period?

what did abolitionists do to fight slavery during the american colonial period

Abolitionists had many methods and ideas. The Reverend Henry Highland Garnet called for a slave uprising at an 1843 meeting of black representatives. Harriet Tubman, Sojourner Truth, Maria Stewart, and others helped slaves escape through the Underground Railroad. Some fought slavery with the pen. Theodore Dwight Weld collected stories from slaves, slave owners, and slave … Read more

How did colonial slaves in America obtain an education?

how did colonial slaves in america obtain an education scaled

Education was one of the first steps toward unlocking the chains of slavery, but it was against the law for a slave to be taught to read or write. Those who wanted to learn used the Bible, or depended on abolitionists and young white school children who considered it an adventure to teach slaves. They … Read more

Why did American colonists choose Africans for Slaves and not Native Americans?

why did american colonists choose africans for slaves and not native americans

In the colonists’ opinion, Native Americans were not suited to be slaves because they caught European diseases too easily. Indentured servants were also unsuitable because there weren’t enough of them and they were protected by law from being enslaved. Africans were used as slaves instead because they were strong, not protected by laws, and could … Read more

What does the Declaration of Independence mean and How many parts are there?

what does the declaration of independence mean and how many parts are there

In 1776, the thirteen colonies voted to declare their independence from Great Britain. Thomas Jefferson put their declaration in writing. This document was called the Declaration of Independence, and was signed by fifty-six representatives of the colonies. The Declaration of Independence is written in language that is easy to understand. It has three parts. The … Read more

Who was Frederick Douglass and How did Frederick Douglass contribute to the abolition of slavery in America?

who was frederick douglass and how did frederick douglass contribute to the abolition of slavery in america

Frederick Douglass (1817-1895), born a slave in Maryland, escaped to New York at the age of twenty-one. He educated himself and became the greatest anti-slavery speaker of his time. In his speeches, he told of the conditions that slaves lived in, how they were treated, and how they felt. In 1847 he established the North … Read more

How did slaves in Colonial America sue for their freedom?

how did slaves in colonial america sue for their freedom

Many slaves did sue for their freedom, but these freedom suits did not challenge slavery itself. They alleged that the slave was being unlawfully held in bondage. In one 1735 case, Re Negro James, a slave named James petitioned a Massachusetts court for his future freedom, since his master’s will stated that James would be … Read more

How did slaves in Colonial America protest slavery in the 1700s?

how did slaves in colonial america protest slavery in the 1700s

There were many instances of violent slave revolts during the American colonial period. These were very desperate actions, because they were doomed to fail. The most famous slave revolts were led by Gabriel Prosser, Nat Turner, and Denmark Vesey. The first major slave uprising in America happened in 1739. In the early morning hours of … Read more

How did Slaves Revolt during the American Colonial Period?

how did slaves revolt during the american colonial period scaled

In 1800, inspired partly by the biblical story of Moses leading the Israelites out of bondage, Virginia slave Gabriel Prosser planned to attack and seize parts of the city of Richmond, killing as many whites as possible in the process. He spread word of his plan to over one thousand slaves; they gathered, only to … Read more

Which black abolitionists were part of the abolitionist movement in America in the 1700s?

which black abolitionists were part of the abolitionist movement in america in the 1700s

Prominent among black abolitionists were Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman (ca. 1820-1913), Sojourner Truth (ca. 1797-1883), the Reverend Henry Highland Garnet (1815, 1882), and Frances Harper (1825-1911). The self-trained black scientist Benjamin Banneker (1731-1806) was the compiler of The Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia Almanac and Ephemeris, published annually from 1791 to 1802. He sent the … Read more

How did free slaves in Colonial America lead a normal life?

how did free slaves in colonial america lead a normal life

For free blacks, being free did not mean living freely. State laws in every region restricted the rights of free blacks, often limiting their ability to earn a living. In Maryland and North Carolina, for instance, free blacks had to have special licenses to sell corn, wheat, or tobacco. At all times, free blacks had … Read more

How much did slaves cost during the American Colonial Period?

how much did slaves cost during the american colonial period

In the 1600s, slaves were bought in Africa for about $25 or its equivalent in goods. They were sold in the colonies for about $150 each. The price depended on their condition, age, abilities, and, in the case of women, their ability to have children. In the early 1800s, the prices of prime field hands … Read more

How many Africans died in the voyage across the ocean during the Atlantic slave trade?

how many africans died in the voyage across the ocean during the atlantic slave trade

The extremely unsanitary conditions at sea inevitably caused violent sickness. Because of rampant illness, violence, suicide, and murder, many of the captives, an estimated one to two million, did not survive these cruel voyages. Many others arrived psychologically damaged or near death. An estimated one in every seven captives died during the Middle Passage.

How did slaves during the American Colonial Period adapt to American culture?

how did slaves during the american colonial period adapt to american culture

Although white slaveholders tried to suppress African culture (they believed slaves could be controlled more easily if they spoke only English and depended on what the slaveholders taught them), slaves created their own African American culture by combining English and Christianity with their African culture. They recognized their African heritage, but accepted America as home. … Read more

Who opposed slavery in the 1700s and Did anyone protest slavery in early America?

who opposed slavery in the 1700s and did anyone protest slavery in early america

Slavery was always controversial. Antonio Montesino and Bartolome de las Casas, sixteenth-century Spanish missionaries in North America, were critical of slavery. In the seventeenth century, English and American Quakers opposed slavery and the slave trade. During the eighteenth century, British abolitionists (people who fought against slavery) spoke out against the slave trade, knowing that their … Read more

What was life like for slaves in early colonial America?

what was life like for slaves in early colonial america

Slaves in early colonial America could be bought and sold, and their families could be separated. They were usually not paid for their hard work, could not choose how to make a living, or decide where to live. At the whim of their owners, slaves could be beaten, imprisoned, tortured, or even killed if they … Read more

Were all black people in the colonies during the American Colonial Period slaves?

were all black people in the colonies during the american colonial period slaves

Before slavery became official, a small population of free black men and women already lived in the North American colonies. Many of these were indentured servants who had completed their service and were freed. Following their freedom, some began to accumulate money, property, and servants. Some slaves purchased their freedom with money earned on the … Read more

How were Africans captured for slavery during the Atlantic slave trade?

how were africans captured for slavery during the atlantic slave trade

Some slaves were prisoners of African tribal and national wars. Slave traders formed trading companies and set up trading stations (known as forts) in areas where they wanted to obtain slaves. Representatives of the companies went to do business with the local chiefs. By plying the chiefs with various trade goods, trinkets, and liquor, the … Read more

What was life like in the African homeland during the American Colonial Period?

what was life like in the african homeland during the american colonial period

In this land of tropical forests, vast deserts, and grasslands, many societies were matrilineal; this means that inheritance and property rights descended through the mother. When a man and woman married, the groom left his family to join his bride’s clan. West Africans believed that spirits were all around them, living in rivers, rocks, animals, … Read more

What was Africa like before the Atlantic slave trade began?

what was africa like before the atlantic slave trade began scaled

Long before European slavery, there were powerful, wealthy kingdoms in West Africa. Among them were ancient Ghana, Mali, and Songhai (sometimes spelled Songhay), which flourished between the eighth and sixteenth centuries. They were located in the western Sudan, where the nations of Niger, Mauritania, Burkina Faso, and Mali stand now. Their wealth came from their … Read more

What was the first black school in U.S. history and Were there any schools for African Americans during the colonial period?

what was the first black school in u s history and were there any schools for african americans during the colonial period

Elias Neau, a Frenchman, operated a school for African Americans in New York as early as 1704. The first blacks to be employed as teachers were named Harry and Andrew (last names unknown). They started a school for slaves in South Carolina, where they taught basic reading and writing. The first black school in U.S. … Read more

Why did planters in South Carolina seek Slaves from particular regions of Africa?

why did planters in south carolina seek slaves from particular regions of africa

Many West Africans were skilled farmers and artists. In South Carolina, where slaves became a majority of the population, planters sought slaves from particular regions of Africa who possessed desired skills, such as the knowledge of rice cultivation, boat building, or coastal navigation. Some tribes made textiles and baskets; others worked with animal skins and … Read more

Where did slaves in Colonial America live?

where did slaves in colonial america live

For field slave families, home was a small one or two room cabin where as many as twelve people might live. Archaeologists excavating seventeenth- and eighteenth-century sites found that slave dwellings in those early years of slavery had clay walls and thatch roofs, similar to those in West Africa. By the nineteenth century, log cabins … Read more

What happened when slaves in Colonial America got sick?

what happened when slaves in colonial america got sick scaled

Most slaves treated themselves and other slaves and rarely saw white doctors when they got sick. Slaves were quite successful in treating everything from coughs to backaches and snake bites with natural remedies, and many of these remedies were also sought by whites. Slave women acted as midwives, handling the birth of most of the … Read more

How were slaves controlled in Colonial America?

how were slaves controlled in colonial america

Virginia was the first colony to create slave codes, or laws, and the other colonies followed suit. These laws stated that slaves were property, not people, and could be sold at any time; that they could not marry, learn how to read or write, hold unauthorized religious services, or gather for any reason without permission. … Read more

Who owned slaves in Colonial America?

who owned slaves in colonial america

In the North and South, many slave owners were whites who owned small farms. Usually there were about twenty slaves on these farms. Other southern slave holders owned large plots of land, or plantations, on which they grew a crop that they sold.

When did the first African explorers arrive in North America?

when did the first african explorers arrive in north america

Although no one knows for sure when the first Africans came to what is now the continental United States, there is solid evidence of some early black explorers in the area. One of Christopher Columbus’ companions on his voyage in 1492 was Pedro Alonzo Nino, a man who appears to have been of African descent. … Read more

What did slaves eat in Colonial America?

what did slaves eat in colonial america

Typically, slaves were given very small amounts of food, which might include meat, flour, milk, lard, cornmeal, and greens. Throughout the South, their major staple was corn. Although rice was available, it was worth more, and so was saved for export (or sale abroad). Slaves ate corn with pork and beef and supplemented the meat … Read more

How did Clergymen defend Slavery in Colonial America?

how did clergymen defend slavery in colonial america

Clergymen in favor of slavery found passages in the Bible that they believed supported slavery. The most frequently used was Genesis 9:25-27. In these passages, Noah, upset by the misbehavior of his son Ham, who was thought to be black, cursed all the descendants of Ham’s son Canaan. The curse was that they would be … Read more

When did slavery become legal in colonial America?

when did slavery become legal in colonial america

Virginia made slavery legal in 1661 and passed a law the following year that stated that children born to a slave mother would also be slaves. During the 1600s, slavery based on race slowly became a way of life throughout all thirteen American colonies. By the beginning of the 1700s, new laws had been created … Read more

What is slavery and Where did the word slave come from?

what is slavery and where did the word slave come from

Slavery is the practice in which people are treated as property. A slave is owned by a master, made to do work for no pay, and can be sold or traded to someone else at any time. Slavery was known in almost every ancient civilization, and society, including Ancient Egypt, Ancient China, Ancient India, Ancient … Read more

What kind of work did slaves do in Colonial America?

what kind of work did slaves do in colonial america

In the South, most slaves worked on cotton, tobacco, and rice plantations. Slaves also worked in Louisiana’s salt mines, rope factories in Kentucky, the iron factories of Virginia, and the North Carolina cotton mills. In the North, the slaves worked in cities, on farms, and on ships. On plantations, field slaves (or field hands, as … Read more

When and where did human slavery begin and Where did slaves come from?

when and where did human slavery begin and where did slaves come from scaled

Human slavery began in prehistoric times. Originally, it had nothing to do with race: It was a system of using prisoners of war as servants or laborers for those who had captured them. Other slaves were criminals or people who could not pay their debts. Ancient Greeks, Romans, Africans, and Egyptians enslaved whomever they conquered. … Read more

Who was Duke Ellington and Why was Duke Ellington one of the most significant jazz musicians and composers?

who was duke ellington and why was duke ellington one of the most significant jazz musicians and composers

One of the most significant jazz musicians and composers, Duke Ellington (1899-1974) began his performance career playing jazz for white audiences at Harlem’s Cotton Club in 1927. It was at this popular night spot that Duke first expressed the music of a “black experience,” yet his popularity proved that his music was for everyone. By … Read more

Who Discovered Weak and Strong Forces and What is the difference between the Weak Force and the Strong Force?

who discovered weak and strong forces and what is the difference between the weak force and the strong force

For several centuries scientists thought that gravity and electromagnetic forces governed the universe. Then twentieth-century physicists found atomic nuclei composed of positively charged protons. Why didn’t they fly apart since positive electrical forces repel each other? Further, why did some atoms naturally radioactively decay while others did not? Many physicists proposed that two new forces … Read more

Who Discovered that an Ecosystem is a given place where plants, animals, and environment are all interdependent?

who discovered that an ecosystem is a given place where plants animals and environment are all interdependent

Many scientists over the centuries had studied the relationship of various species to their climate and environment. They studied elements of ecology. However, it wasn’t until 1935 that Arthur Tansley realized that all species in a given environment were interconnected. Grasses affected top carnivores and the bugs that decomposed dead animals, and fallen trees affected … Read more

Who Discovered the Function of Genes and How do Genes control individual cells?

who discovered the function of genes and how do genes control individual cells

Genes are strung along chromosomes and contain directions for the operation and growth of individual cells. But how can a molecule of nucleic acid (a gene) direct an entire complex cell to perform in a certain way? George Beadle answered this critical question and vastly improved our understanding of evolutionary genetics. Beadle discovered that each … Read more

Who Discovered Blood Plasma and How does separating red blood cells and plasma extended the shelf life?

who discovered blood plasma and how does separating red blood cells and plasma extended the shelf life

Whole blood can be safely stored for only a few days. That had always meant that blood donations had to come from local sources and be given at the time of need. Blood couldn’t travel long distances. People with unusual blood types often had to do without during surgery and suffered accordingly. Charles Drew discovered … Read more

Who Discovered the Semiconductor Transistor and How does a semiconductor turn into superconductor?

who discovered the semiconductor transistor and how does a semiconductor turn into superconductor

John Bardeen won his first Nobel Prize for discovering the transistor effect of semiconductor materials. Most materials either conduct electric flow (conductors) or block that flow (insulators). But a few materials sometimes permitted some electric flow (semiconductors). Though they had been identified by the late 1800s, no one knew the value of semiconductors until Bardeen … Read more

Who Discovered Jumping Genes that are not permanently fixed on chromosomes and When?

who discovered jumping genes that are not permanently fixed on chromosomes and when

Every researcher in the world accepted that genes were strung along chromosomes in fixed positions like pearls on a necklace. Working alone in a small, windswept cornfield at Cold Springs Harbor, Long Island, Barbara McClintock proved every other genetic scientist in the world wrong. Carefully studying wild corn, Barbara McClintock found that genes not only … Read more

Who Discovered Quarks and Where do the subatomic particles that make up protons and neutrons come from?

who discovered quarks and where do the subatomic particles that make up protons and neutrons come from

First scientists identified plant fibers, then individual cells. Then scientists conceived of atoms and molecules. In the early twentieth century, scientists discovered electrons and then the existence of protons and neutrons. In each case, scientists believed that they had finally discovered the smallest possible particle of matter. Each time this belief proved wrong. The discovery … Read more

Who Discovered Quasars and Pulsars and Where do the super dense, distant objects in space come from?

who discovered quasars and pulsars and where do the super dense distant objects in space come from scaled

Quasars and pulsars represent a new class of objects in space, a new kind of massive, extraordinarily bright object. Massive, exceedingly dense, and producing powerful radio and light transmissions, quasars and pulsars radically expanded and altered scientists’ view of space and space structures. Quasars are some of the brightest and most distant objects in the … Read more

Who Discovered that Evolution is driven by symbiotic relationships and mergers between cooperating species?

who discovered that evolution is driven by symbiotic relationships and mergers between cooperating species

Charles Darwin was the first to conceive that species evolved, changed, over time, and the first to identify a driving force for that change, survival of the fittest. Darwin’s theories instantly became the bedrock of biological thinking and survived unchallenged for a century. Lynn Margulis was the first to discover and prove modification to Darwin’s … Read more

Who Discovered Chaos Theory and Why is long term weather impossible to predict and forecast?

who discovered chaos theory and why is long term weather impossible to predict and forecast

Ed Lorenz uncovered a non-linear, complex, interdependent system of equations that describe the real movement of the atmosphere. He showed that atmospheric models are so dependent on initial and boundary conditions (starting data supplied to the model) that even seemingly infinitesimal changes in them create major changes in the system. In other words, when a … Read more

Who Discovered that the Seafloor is Spreading which confirms continental drift theory by Alfred Wegener?

who discovered that the seafloor is spreading which confirms continental drift theory by alfred wegener

We now know that Earth’s continents move. Over hundreds of millions of years, they drift across Earth’s surface. You have likely seen pictures of what Earth looked like 500 million years ago. But just 60 years ago, no one believed that it was possible for massive continents to move. There was no force great enough … Read more

Who Discovered DNA and Where does the DNA molecule come from?

who discovered dna and where does the dna molecule come from

British biochemist Francis Crick, and his American partner, James Watson, created the first accurate model of the molecular structure of deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, the master code to the building and operation of all living organisms. That discovery has been called by many “the most significant discovery of the century.” This discovery of the details … Read more

Who Discovered the Origins of Life on Earth and What was the first laboratory re-creation of amino acids?

who discovered the origins of life on earth and what was the first laboratory re creation of amino acids scaled

One of the greatest mysteries has long been: How did life first form on this planet? Theories abound. Bacteria not naturally found on Earth have been found in meteorites recovered in Antarctica. Possibly life here came from some other planet. For over a hundred years, the most popular scientific theory has been that DNA molecules … Read more

Who Discovered Nuclear Fusion and How does fusing two atomic nuclei into one atom release energy?

who discovered nuclear fusion and how does fusing two atomic nuclei into one atom release energy

Fusion energy is the power of the sun. It is a virtually unlimited power source that can be created from hydrogen and lithium, common elements in the earth’s crust. Fusion is clean, environmentally friendly, and non-polluting. Fusion was theorized in the late 1910s and the 1920s. It was mathematically described in the 1930s. It was … Read more

Who Discovered Dark Matter and Where does Dark Matter come from?

who discovered dark matter and where does dark matter come from

Calculations of the expansion of the universe didn’t work. Calculations of the speed of stars in distant galaxies didn’t match what astronomers observed. Calculations of the age of the universe (based on the speed of its expansion) didn’t make sense. Something had to be wrong with the methods used for these calculations. With these major … Read more

Who Discovered Continental Drift theory and Why do the Earth’s continents drift and move over time?

who discovered continental drift theory and why do the earths continents drift and move over time

Before Alfred Wegener’s discovery, scientists thought that the earth was a static body, never changing, now as it always has been. Alfred Wegener’s discovery that Earth’s continents drift across the face of the planet led to modern tectonic plate theories and to a true understanding of how Earth’s crust, mantel, and core move, flow, and … Read more

Who Discovered Penicillin and Where does Penicillin come from?

who discovered penicillin and where does penicillin come from

Penicillin has saved millions of lives, tens of thousands during the last years of World War II alone. The first antibiotic to successfully fight bacterial infections and disease, penicillin was called a miracle cure for a dozen killer diseases rampant in the early twentieth century. Penicillin created a whole new arsenal of drugs in doctors’ … Read more

Who Discovered the Function of Chromosomes and What is the relationship between Chromosomes and Genes?

who discovered the function of chromosomes and what is the relationship between chromosomes and genes

T. H. Morgan’s discovery that genes were linked into groups and strung along chromosomes was the second major step in peeling back the mystery of heredity and evolution. Morgan’s discovery formed much of the foundation for later discoveries of how genes and chromosomes do their work as well as the structure of the DNA molecule. … Read more

Who Discovered Antimatter and Where does Antimatter come from?

who discovered antimatter and where does antimatter come from

Antimatter are particles of the same mass and composition as protons and electrons, but with an opposite electrical charge. Science fiction space ships are regularly powered by antimatter drives. Futuristic bombs are designed around antimatter. Yet neither you nor anyone you’ve ever met has even once seen a particle of antimatter. Antimatter does not come … Read more

Who Discovered Isotopes and Why do some chemical elements have different atomic weights?

who discovered isotopes and why do some chemical elements have different atomic weights

Isotopes of an element are slightly different forms of that element. Isotopes have the same chemical, physical, and electrical properties as the original element, but have a different number of neutrons in their nucleus. The discovery of isotopes created a new dimension and concept for physics and chemistry. This discovery answered baffling problems that had … Read more

Who Discovered Superconductivity and How do some materials lose all resistance to electrical current at super low temperatures?

who discovered superconductivity and how do some materials lose all resistance to electrical current at super low temperatures

Superconductivity is the flow of electrical current without any resistance to that flow. Even the best conductors have some resistance to electrical current. But superconductors do not. Unfortunately, superconductors only exist in the extreme cold of near absolute zero. Even though the practical application of this discovery has not yet been realized, superconductivity holds the … Read more

Who Discovered that Earthquakes occur along Fault Lines and Where do Earthquakes come from?

who discovered that earthquakes occur along fault lines and where do earthquakes come from

Scientists now know that they can predict the locations of future earthquakes by mapping the locations of fault lines. However, just a century ago this simple truth was not known. Harry Reid’s discovery that earthquakes happen along existing fault lines provided the first understanding of the source and process of earthquakes. This discovery laid the … Read more